Essay Writing Tips For College Students

Essay Writing Tips For College StudentsCollege essays are one of the most challenging parts of a college education. There are many topics that you must write about. Because there are so many things that you will need to think about, it is critical that you write your essay with the right mindset and strategy.There are many great resources that you can use to help you on your journey. You may find some of these helpful as they will show you what to write about and how to write about it. They will also show you the tools and methods you need to use to make your essay stand out. College students are often surprised by how well their essays are written if they read it quickly and then read it again to see if they made any mistakes.When it comes to writing your essay, there are many tools that can help you. One of the best resources is to take notes. By writing down the main points that you would like to talk about and then making notes during the course of the class, you can make sure th at you don't forget anything important. This can be really helpful because you can change your mind if you find something that you feel you should add.There are also other ways that you can make sure that you don't waste time on something that you shouldn't be doing. One of the best methods is to find some resources that will help you find ways that you can simplify the topics that you will be writing about. For example, if you have to write about your hometown, you could find out how you can describe it in just one sentence.One way to learn the simplest ways to simplify a college essay is to look at some sample essays from many different subjects. By looking at these, you can get a good idea of what it is that college students are looking for when they are looking for ways to simplify a topic.The last tip that I want to give you on writing your college essay is that you need to make sure that you do not repeat yourself. If you do this, it will make your essay seem very long and bor ing. By not repeating yourself, you will allow yourself to keep writing the essay, as you will be able to make it more interesting.These are just a few tips that can help you in the process of writing your college essay. As you go through this process, you will notice that there are a few key areas that you need to focus on in order to help you not waste time on a topic that is uninteresting. Just remember that if you do this, you will be surprised by how well your essay stands out.

Analyzing Elements Of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors...

Introduction This research paper discusses components of Job Dissatisfaction (chapter 3). Based upon research, the paper will analyze elements of organizational citizenship behaviors and personality-job fit theory. In addition, the paper introduces factors that organizations and employees can consider to reduce job dissatisfaction, or improve job satisfaction. Job Dissatisfaction Job satisfaction is the positive feeling about a job in evaluating characteristics, interactions, and dynamics (Robbins Judge, 2009, p. 79). Conversely, job dissatisfaction occurs when employees have a negative feeling about a job whether it is a dislike for the organizational culture or a job-personality mismatch. Warning signs of job dissatisfaction are negative employee behaviors such as decrease productivity, increase absenteeism, and increase turnover (Stretch, 2009a, s.16). These factors coupled with withdrawn employees, reward misallocation, and poor employee attitudes can increase costs for firms (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, Blume, 2009, p. 123). Moreover, job-personality mismatches can lead to employee dissatisfaction and higher turnover, and high customer dissatisfaction can cause employee dissatisfaction (Robbins Judge, 2009, pp. 83). To stem the tides of job dissatisfaction, employers that offer training, challenge assignments, increase auto nomy, and use predictability can enhance employee satisfaction (Robbins Judge, 2009, p. 84). In addition, firms thatShow MoreRelatedStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesOrganizational Behavior This page intentionally left blank Organizational Behavior EDITION 15 Stephen P. Robbins —San Diego State University Timothy A. Judge —University of Notre Dame i3iEi35Bj! Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Director of Editorial Services:Read MoreA Hierarchical Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior8131 Words   |  33 PagesA Hierarchical Taxonomy of Leadership Behavior: Integrating a Half Century of Behavior Research Gary Yukl Angela Gordon University at Albany, Tom Taber State University of New York, Albany, NY A major problem leadership research and has been lack of agreement about which theory behavior categories are relevant and meaningful. It is difficult to integrate findings from five decades of research unless the many diverse leadership behaviors can be integrated in a parsimonious and meaningfulRead MoreThe Foundation of Curriculum2572 Words   |  11 Pagesthe methods to be used in the process (English, 2000). The educative experiences learners have in an educational program. The purpose of which is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives that have been developed within a framework of theory and research, past and present professional practice, and the changing needs of society (Parkay, 2006). †¢ 3. Concept of Curriculum A systematic group of courses or sequence of subjects required for graduation or certification in a major field ofRead MoreImpact of Rewards on Employee Performance in Banking Sector9390 Words   |  38 Pagesperformance. Review of literature will sustain and credible this study. The data will be collected through different bank branches in Lahore. The sample size will be more than hundred. Questioner technique will be used for the collection of data. For analyzing result the regression analysis will be used. 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Competition and Industry[1] The Tanglewood Department Store chain operates in the nondurable general retail industry, which fits into industry 452100 as classified by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). This industry engages in the sale of consumer goods including clothing, small appliances, electronics, and other housewares. The retail industry accountsRead MoreOverview of Hrm93778 Words   |  376 Pagesto diverse audience/students, including those who are studying this as a supporting subject for their bachelor degree program. This course is designed to provide you the foundations of HRM whether you intend to work in HRM or not, most of these elements will affect you at some point in your career. Either you will be working with some organizations or having people working for you, in both cases you will be dealing with people. 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In short job satisfaction is a person’sRead MoreLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 PagesPlanning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Factors in Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Time Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Collecting and Analyzing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Levels of Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Accountability . . . . . . . . .Read MoreCustomer Is Not Always Right13057 Words   |  53 Pagesother employees about company and they are customers who always makes hurdle for company and so on and so forth, and we might encounter some of them that will scream at you or some will just be okay. Some of them will down your principle, even your personality or we can say that some of them are just over reacting to the point that they are already below their belt. They misbehave because they know that the management does not want to lose them. Customers are used to tell the famous slogan in any business

The Ethics Of Computers With Ai Example For Students

The Ethics Of Computers With Ai In recent years, advancements in robotics has been bringing humans and machines to work together. Many autonomous systems are being used for variety of things. Robots can be used for simple tasks like mowing the lawn and vacuuming to advanced tasks like self-driving vehicles. Many of these robots are given artificial intelligence (AI). Development of AI has recently become a major topic among philosophers and engineers. One major concern is the ethics of computers with AI. Robot ethics (roboethics) is an area of study about rules that should be created to ensure that robots behave ethically. Humans are morally obligated to ensure that machines with artificial intelligence behave ethically. In the 1940s, science-fiction author Isaac Asimov came up with the Three Laws of Robotics. The laws are: 1 A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm; 2 A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law and 3 A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws. The three laws were the first attempt to govern the behavior of AIs. Intelligent robots are required to interact with their surroundings. Imagine a self-driving car going down a residential road with a bunch of parked cars on the side. Then, a child steps out from behind a parked car into the street. The self-driving car could either hit the child or swerve to avoid a collision. A car that has been programmed with a moral code would try to avoid running over the child. Autonomous vehicles are required to have a person in the driver’s seat as a safety precaution. The car would show ethical behavior by following the first law of robotics. Creating a moral code for robots poses many challenges. There are two main approaches to making an ethical robot. One approach is writing a specific ethical law for the robot to follow. I believe that robots should take a Kantian approach to decision making. Robots should follow Kant’s categorical imperative (First Formulation) â€Å"Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.† The robot would be given a task. Then it could run a near infinite number of scenarios where the action could become a universal law. If they robot could accomplish the task, then it morally permissible to act on the maxim. Having a robot that follows the first formulation would also benefit humans. The robot could assist humans by running many scenarios. This would be a good starting point for when an AI needs to make a decision. Rules can be implemented easily since they are categorical. Another approach would be to teach the ro bot how to respond in situations. The response would need to have an ethical outcome. The method is similar to how humans learn morality. The robot would learn right from wrong. This approach can be effective as long as the teacher acts ethically. Robots could also take an Act Utilitarianism approach to decision making. A robot could run an algorithm to maximize overall happiness. An AI would quantify the happiness that each action would cause and then compare the results. Robots can do the calculations to estimate the amount of happiness that a decision could create a lot faster than humans can. This system could work if nobody is killed or harmed. The rules and laws that govern humans would need to be taken into account. This would ensure that the AI makes an ethical decision. The creation of AIs also needs to be ethical. Robots should not be designed to harm humans like in military applications. It is unethical for robots to learn how to become more effective at causing harm. Many military applications would violate the first law of robotics. Presently, drones use AI algorithms to acquire and destroy targets. In 2016, a US military drone falsely targeted people in Pakistan. The drone used cell phone metadata to acquire its targets. Unregulated AIs pose a huge risk for humanity. AIs could target many innocent people and cause mass destruction of cities if they don’t have an ethical code to guide them. Weaponization of AIs is unethical because it is wrong to design an advanced system to be more effective at killing humans. .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 , .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .postImageUrl , .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 , .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:hover , .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:visited , .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:active { border:0!important; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:active , .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38 .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u78d3b4d9df7ecaedb481c25ce1fc0d38:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Martin Luther King Jr EssayIn 2016, Microsoft unveiled a machine learning project, an AI chatbot named Tay. The goal of the AI was to engage and entertain people on Twitter. Tay is capable of performing tasks like telling jokes, commenting on pictures, and answer questions. Tay used a learning based response system. A board of writers wrote some responses that Tay could use for conversations. Within 24 hours of release, the chatbot was making racist and misogynistic tweets. Many internet trolls would write the inappropriate comments. Then they would have Tay repeat them. This incident demonstrates that engineers have a responsibility to make sure that AIs have morals. Many people also fear that an AI could become hostile and that it could remove safety devices. Humans are not actively hostile towards animals. Since most AIs are programmed to act like humans and have conciseness, robots would not have any reason to be hostile towards humans. Basic moral principles would prevent them from causing harm to humans. In most cases, the primary function for an AI is friendliness towards humanity. There is no reason for AIs to resent human created motivations. There is no motive for an AI to reprogram itself to be unfriendly. Humans don’t remove parts of their personality to become unfriendly. Therefore, an AI wouldn t want to remove their core parts that affect attitude. If something does go wrong and an AI goes rogue there are many safety devices in place. AIs are being designed with kill switches in case of emergencies. There are many reasons humans are obligated to design AIs with morals. Humans have moral codes and robots are design to think like humans. Robots need to be designed to have similar ethical codes. Without moral codes, AIs can cause harm to humans. AIs need to have a reliable way of learning so they can make fewer mistakes. Safe guards and filters need to be placed to ensure that AIs can learn from good examples. AIs must have goals that can be completed in an ethical way. When an AI makes a decision, it must be able to explain the reasoning that supports their actions.

Microsoft Antitrust Essays (2426 words) - AOL, Microsoft Litigation

Microsoft Antitrust Since 1990, a battle has raged in United States courts between the United States government and the Microsoft Corporation out of Redmond, Washington, headed by Bill Gates. What is at stake is money. The federal government maintains that Microsoft's monopolistic practices are harmful to United States citizens, creating higher prices and potentially downgrading software quality, and should therefore be stopped, while Microsoft and its supporters claim that they are not breaking any laws, and are just doing good business. Microsoft's antitrust problems began for them in the early months of 1990(Check 1), when the Federal Trade Commission began investigating them for possible violations of the Sherman and Clayton Antitrust Acts,(Maldoom 1) which are designed to stop the formation of monopolies. The investigation continued on for the next three years without resolve, until Novell, maker of DR-DOS, a competitor of Microsoft's MS-DOS, filed a complaint with the Competition Directorate of the European Commission in June of 1993. (Maldoom 1) Doing this stalled the investigations even more, until finally in August of 1993, (Check 1)the Federal Trade Commission decided to hand the case over to the Department of Justice. The Department of Justice moved quickly, with Anne K. Bingaman, head of the Antitrust Division of the DOJ, leading the way.(Check 1) The case was finally ended on July 15, 1994, with Microsoft signing a consent settlement.(Check 1) The settlement focused on Microsoft's selling practices with computer manufacturers. Up until now, Microsoft would sell MS-DOS and Microsoft's other operating systems to original equipment manufacturers (OEM's) at a 60% discount if that OEM agreed to pay a royalty to Microsoft for every single computer that they sold (Check 2) regardless if it had a Microsoft operating system installed on it or not. After the settlement, Microsoft would be forced to sell their operating systems according to the number of computers shipped with a Microsoft operating system installed, and not for computers that ran other operating systems. (Check 2) Another practice that the Justice Department accused Microsoft of was that Microsoft would specify a minimum number of minimum number of operating systems that the retailer had to buy, thus eliminating any chance for another operating system vendor to get their system installed until the retailer had installed all of the Microsoft operating systems that it had installed.(Maldoom 2) In addition to specifying a minimum number of operating systems that a vendor had to buy, Microsoft also would sign contracts with the vendors for long periods of time such as two or three years. In order for a new operating system to gain popularity, it would have to do so quickly, in order to show potential buyers that it was worth something. With Microsoft signing long term contracts, they eliminated the chance for a new operating system to gain the popularity needed, quickly.(Maldoom 2) Probably the second most controversial issue, besides the per processor agreement, was Microsoft's practice of tying. Tying was a practice in which Microsoft would use their leverage in one market area, such as graphical user interfaces, to gain leverage in another market, such as operating systems, where they may have competition.(Maldoom 2) In the preceding example, Microsoft would use their graphical user interface, Windows, to sell their operating system, DOS, by offering discounts to manufacturers that purchased both MS-DOS and Windows, and threatening to not sell Windows to companies who did not also purchase DOS. In the end, Microsoft decided to suck it up and sign the settlement agreement. In signing the agreement, Microsoft did not actually have to admit to any of the alleged charges, but were able to escape any type of formal punishment such as fines and the like. The settlement that Microsoft agreed to prohibits it, for the next six and a half years from: * Charging for its operating system on the basis of computer shipped rather than on copies of MS-DOS shipped; * Imposing minimum quantity commitments on manufacturers; * Signing contracts for greater than one year; * Tying the sale of MS_DOS to the sale of other Microsoft products;(Maldoom 1) Although these penalties look to put an end to all of Microsoft's evil practices, some people think that they are not harsh enough and that Microsoft should have been split up to put a stop to any chance of them forming a true monopoly of the operating system market and of the entire software market. On one side of the issue, there are the people who feel that Microsoft should be left alone, at least for the time being. I am one of these people,

Modelling of underwater acoustic communication network The WritePass Journal

Modelling of underwater acoustic communication network 1. INTRODUCTION Modelling of underwater acoustic communication network 1. INTRODUCTION  2. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES3.   MEDIA ACCESS TECHNIQUES4. MAC PROTOCOLS FOR UNDERWATER NETWORKS5. NETWORK LAYER6. RELATED WORK7. CONCLUSION FUTURE PROSPECTS  REFERENCESRelated 1. INTRODUCTION The research on underwater acoustic networks (UAN) is gaining attention due to their important applications for military and commercial purposes. Underwater communication applications mostly involve long term monitoring of selected ocean areas. The traditional approach for ocean bottom monitoring is to deploy underwater sensors, record the data and recover the instruments. However this approach creates long delays in receiving the recorded information and if a failure occurs before the recovery, all the data is lost. The ideal solution for these applications is to establish real time communication between underwater instruments and a communication center within a network configuration . Basic underwater networks (UAN) are formed by establishing a two way acoustic link between various instruments such as autonomous underwater vehicles and sensors. the network is then connected to backbone such as internet, through the RF link. This configuration creates an interactive environment where scientists can extract real time data from multiple underwater instruments. The data is transferred to the control station when it is available hence data loss is prevented until a failure occurs[2]. Underwater networks can also be used to increase the operation range of underwater vehicles. The feasible range of underwater vehicles is limited by the acoustic range of a single modem which varies from 10   to 90 km [2].However   due to high cost involved in underwater devices it is necessary that the deployed network   be highly reliable so as to avoid failure of monitoring mission due to failure of single or multiple devices. From the communication point of view, underwater environment is much different from its terrestrial counterpart. Consequently, the research of UAN’s becomes different and exhibits unique features. It is because: The attenuation of acoustic signals increase with frequency and range resulting in extremely small feasible band. The propagation speed of acoustic wave is 1500m/sec which is several orders of magnitude lower than radio waves [3], thus giving large propagation delays. The channel characteristics vary with time and highly depend on transmitter and receiver. The fluctuating nature of the channel causes distortion in the signals. Due to the variable acoustic environment UAN differ in many aspects such as ranging from network topologies to protocols of all layers compared with the ground one.   2. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES The network topology directly influences network capacity of the underwater channel which is severely limited. It becomes important to organize network topology in such a way that no congestion occurs or in other words designing of network topology with single point of failure should be avoided. Underwater networks can be composed of entirely fixed nodes, entirely mobile nodes or a mixture of both. The   network topology typically need to be ad hoc in nature either because communicating nodes are moving or basic acoustic conditions change with time. There are three basic network topologies that can be used to interconnect network nodes [3]. (1)  Ã‚   Centralized topology   Ã‚  In this topology, each network host is connected to central station known as hub of the network. The network is connected to a backbone at this central station. Deep under water acoustic networks (UAN) has been tested using this configuration where a surface buoy with both an acoustic and RF modem acts as the hub and controls the communication to and from ocean bottom instruments. This topology is considered the easiest topology to design and implement .The advantage of this topology is the simplicity of adding additional nodes. A major disadvantage of this topology is the presence of single failure point.If the hub fails, the entire network goes down. Further, the network cannot cover large areas due to limited range of single modem. (2)  Ã‚   Distributed of point to point topology   This topology provides point to point links between every node of the network. There is just one hop from a node to any other node, hence routing is not necessary. The major disadvantage of this configuration is that excessive power is needed for communicating with widely spread nodes. Further, near far problem [4] is much prominent in which a node can block signals of the neighboring node. (3)  Ã‚   Multihop topology In this topology nodes are involved to send a message from source node to destination. Hence routing is needed which is handled by intelligent algorithms that can adapt to changing conditions.Multihop networks can cover large areas since the range of the network is now determined by number of nodes rather than the range of the modem. The only problem with this topology is that of packet delay as the number of hops increase 3.   MEDIA ACCESS TECHNIQUES Due to scarce bandwidth, long propagation delay and high error rate, underwater nodes in a UAN have to share the available resources. The three basic access techniques are (1) Frequency division multiple access(FDMA)   Ã‚  FDMA divides the bandwidth into several subbands and assigns one of them to a particular user. The band is used by this user only till it is released.FDMA may not be efficient in underwater environment. The available bandwidth is extremely limited .By   dividing the band into smaller sub bands , the coherence bandwidth of the transmission channel can be larger than FDMA subchannel.This will result in severe fading .another issue is that mechanism could in inefficient in bursty[ 4] traffic because bandwidth is fixed for each subband and cannot be adjusted [5] . (2) Time division multiple access(TDMA)   In this multiple access scheme time frame is divided into slots and each slot is assigned one individual   user. Each user transmits in the assigned slot. The advantage of TDMA is power saving which is extremely critical in underwater environment. Since each user transmit only in its assigned slot, transmitter could be turned off during the idle period to save energy.TDMA is also flexible in the way that data rate of users can be increased on demand. The same hardware can be used to transmit and no extra hardware is needed e.g. to add another time slot for a user. The disadvantage of TDMA is that it has larger overload than FDMA which means guard times are included in order to avoid collisions from neighbors. Further, TDMA requires strict time synchronization. The significant difference in propagation delays cause large idle times resulting in decrease in throughput. (3) Code division multiple access   CDMA   This multiple access method is the widely  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   deployed scheme based on spread spectrum. It allows users to transmit signalsall the time with all available bandwidth. Signals from users are distinguished by means of spreading code. This code is orthogonal to the spreading codes used by other users. There are two spreading techniques namely direct sequence spread spectrum(DS) and frequency hopping spread spectrum(FH).In the former case the spread code is multiplied directly(linear modulation) in order to spread the original bits while in latter case, the carrier frequency of a user is changed according to the pattern of the spread code. Following are the main advantages of CDMA (a)  Ã‚   It has higher efficiency and throughput than FDMA and CDMA [3]. (b)  Ã‚   CDMA is very effective against jamming, multipath interference and any other interference that appears deterministic [6]. (c)  Ã‚   Switching from   signal to signal for a transmitter or receiver can be easily done by changing the spread codes. Thus CDMA is flexible. (d)  Ã‚   In DS system, fine time resolution of spreading codes provides the possibility of coherently combining multipath arrivals using rake receiver. The rake receiver identifies three strongest multipath signals and combines them to one powerful signal. If the resolvable multipath components fade independently, it is possible to extract a time diversity gain present in the channel [5]. (e)  Ã‚   Increased communication security. Due to above mentioned reasons, CDMA and spread spectrum signaling appear to be promising multiple access method for shallow water acoustic networks. 4. MAC PROTOCOLS FOR UNDERWATER NETWORKS A lot of media access control (MAC) protocols for underwater networks have been explored such as ALOHA, slotted ALOHA and CSMA. The most significant protocols among underwater networks seem to be CSMA/CA . Carrier sense media access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)  Ã‚   The scarce resources of channel can be utilized much better if users sense the channel before transmitting a packet. This protocol uses two signaling packets called request to send (RTS) and clear to send (CTS). When a device intends to send a packet, it first senses whether another station is already transmitting (carrier sense). If no transmission is sensed, the device will issue RTS signal which contains the length of the message to be sent. If the recipient station senses that the medium is clear, it sends a clear to signal (CTS) which also contains the length of the message to be transmitted. As soon as the station wishing to transmit receives the CTS signal, it sends the actual data packet to its intended recipient. If the transmitting station does not receive the CTS signal in reply, it begins the RTS procedure. The controlling signal CTS should be heard by all the nodes within the range of the receiver node which in turn means that this protocol relies on the symmetry of the channel. It becomes essential to send CTS from a higher level to ensure that all the nodes within the range can hear it. This protocol can be used as a basis of media access protocol for underwater networks. It provides information for power control algorithms as nodes learn the minimum power level needed for reliable communication by trial and error. 5. NETWORK LAYER Single hop transmission becomes inefficient if the range of the network becomes large. In that case multihop transmission is needed to relay the information from source to destination. It has also been proved that in underwater networks multihop transmission is more efficient in terms of power consumption [7]. The network layer is responsible for routing packets from source to destination when multihop is needed. There are two methods of routing namely virtual circuit routing and packet switched routing. In virtual circuit routing, a communication path is decided before the data transmission takes place. Based on resource optimizing algorithm, the system decides which route to follow. For the whole transmission time session between two communicating entities is dedicated and exclusive, and released only when the session terminates. In packet switching, the packets are sent towards the destination irrespective of each other. There is no pre determined path and each packet has to find its own route. Each node is involved in routing the packets in order to determine the next hop of the packet. Underwater networks may have entirely fixed nodes (ocean bottom sensors) or  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   completely mobile nodes (autonomous underwater vehicles).These instruments  Ã‚   temporarily form a network without the aid on any pre existing infrastructure.These are called ad hoc networks [3].The main problem in ad hoc networks is obtaining most recent individual link state in the network, so as to decide best route for the packets. However, in case communication medium is highly variable such as shallow water acoustic channel, the number of routing updates can be very high. Some of the routing protocols that can be used in underwater acoustic networks are as follows [3]: (1)  Ã‚   DSDV (Destination sequenced distance vector)   In this routing algorithm every node maintains a routing table of all available destinations, number of hops to reach the destination and the sequence number assigned by the destination node. The sequence number is used to distinguish stale routes from new routes and thus avoids the formation of loops.   If a node receives new information, it uses the latest sequence number .If the sequence number is same as the one already in the table, the route with better metric will be used. The nodes periodically transmit their routing tables to their neighbors. If a node detects any route to the destination broken, then its hop number is set to infinity and its sequence number is increased.   The disadvantage of DSDV is that its routing tables need to be updated regularly which wastes batter and small bandwidth even when the network is idle. further, if topology of network changes, a new sequence number needs to be added hence DS DV is not suitable for highly dynamic networks. (2)  Ã‚   DSR (Dynamic source routing) Instead on relying on the routing table at intermediate node, DSR makes use of source routing. The sender knows the complete hop by hop route to destination with these routes stored in a route cache. The route for each packet is included in its header. The node which receives the packet checks the header for the next hop and forwards packet. Route discovery works by flooding the network with route requests (RREQ) packets. On receiving the RREQ each node rebroadcasts it, unless it is the destination or it has route to the destination in its route cache. This protocol works well in static and low mobility environments. (3)  Ã‚   AODV (Ad hoc on demand distance vector   This protocol establishes route to the destination only on demand and does not require nodes to maintain routing tables of destinations that are not actively used. Routes are discovered and maintained by route requests (RREQ), route replies (RREP) and route errors (RERR). AODV uses destination sequence numbers on route updates which guarantees loop free path and gives the view of several fresh routes. The advantage of AODV is that it creates no extra traffic for communication along existing links by lowering the number of messages, thus conserving capacity of the network. Also , distance vector routing is simple and does not require much calculation. However time to establish connection and initial establishment of a route is much longer than the other approaches. 6. RELATED WORK The interest in underwater networks and the consequent research has exponentially grown in recent years.   Network Simulation and testing of underwater acoustic networks is relatively a new area, however there already exists some effort in this area. The authors of [2] compare the performances of DSDV, DSR and AODV with regards to following parameters (1)  Ã‚   Total throughput     It is the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel and is expressed as bits per second. Throughput is the very important metric in underwater acoustics because of very limited bandwidth. Fig 1: Total throughput for DSDV, DSR and AODV routing protocols [2] The above figure shows the total throughput plotted against the offered load. It can easily be concluded that AODV has the best performance and maximum throughput, whereas DSR routing protocol is the worst. (1) Total packet delivery ratio   It is the ratio between the number of packets sent out by the source and the number of packets correctly received by the corresponding destination. It is calculated by averaging time passed from the time a data packet is generated and when the packet is received by the destination. Fig 2: Total delivered packets for DSDV, DSR and AODV routing protocols [2] The above figure total delivered packets versus the offered load. The plot indicates that the DSR and DSDV have best performance when the offered load is below 0.1 pkt/sec, and AODV protocol is worse when the offered load is   Ã‚  Ã‚   0.1 pkt/sec. however when the offered load increases AODV protocol gives the best performance compared to DSR and DSDV. (1)  Ã‚   Average end to end delay It is the delay in the arrival of packet calculated by averaging the time that passes the time a data packet is generated to when it arrives at its final destination. Figure (3) shows the plot of average end to end delay versus the load offered. The minimum end to end delay is achieved by AODV protocol .DSR is the worst routing protocol having an average delay of 115 sec.In general minimum delay is achieved by all routing protocols when the offered load is small.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fig 3: Total average end to end delay for DSR, DSDV and AODV protocols. [2] In the above mentioned system it can be concluded that AODV routing protocol  Ã‚   achieves maximum throughput and has best performance compared with DSDV and DSR routing protocols. It also gives minimum end to end delay when compared with other protocols. The best performance was achieved when offered load was decreased resulting in increase in packet delivery rate and decrease in average end to end delay. 7. CONCLUSION FUTURE PROSPECTS The past decades has significantly advanced underwater networking research. Static protocols such as TDMA or CDMA and dynamic protocols like CSMA/CD have been used in distributed and centralized topologies. DSR, AODV and other lightweight protocols have been investigated for underwater use. Efficient multihop and ad hoc packet routing protocols are promising research areas in future. Time is fast approaching for IEEE 802.11 style standardization for underwater network protocols which will lead to interoperable communication devices that can be used in a plug and play fashion similar to terrestrial wireless systems.   REFERENCES [1] J.Catipovic,  D.Brady, S.Etchemendy, â€Å"Development of. Underwater Acoustic Modems and Networks†oceanography ,vol 6,pp112-119,mar 1993 [2] Omar O. AldawibA Review of current Routing Protocols for AdHoc Underwater Acoustic Networks pp 431-433 aug 2008 [3]E.M.Sozer,M.Stojanovic and J.G.Proakis,Underwater Acoustic Networks, IEEE J. OceanicEng.,vol.25,no. 1, Jan. 2000, pp. 72-83. [4] K .Pahlavan and A.H Levesque,wireless information networks,New York,wiley,1995 [5] T. S. Rappaport, â€Å"Wireless Communications†, Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996. [6] A. J. Viterbi, â€Å"CDMA, Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication†, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, May, 1997 [7] M. Stojanavic, â€Å"On the Relationship Between Capacity and Distance in an Underwater Acoustic Communication Channel†, ACM WUWNet ’06, pp. 41 – 47, Los Angeles, CA, USA, Sept., 2006

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